Detailed Table of Contents

A Guide to Astrophotography

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with Digital SLR Cameras

Detailed Table of Contents

Gallery of Digital Astrophotography

Chapter 1 - Cameras for Astrophotography

Types of Digital Cameras
- Digital SLR Cameras (DSLR)
- Dedicated, Cooled Astronomical CCD Cameras (CCD)
- Digital Snapshot Cameras (DSC) (Point and shoot cameras)
- Webcams
How to Pick a Camera
- What kind of pictures do you want to take?
  - Scenics
  - Planetary
  - Deep-Sky
- What is the best kind of camera to take them with?
  - Scenics
  - Planetary
  - Deep-Sky
- How deep do you want to get into astrophotography?
Film vs CCD vs DSLR
- DSLR vs Dedicated Astronomical CCD
- Camera Specifications
  - Film
  - Canon EOS 60Da
  - SBIG ST-8300C
DSLR Camera Attributes
- Important Camera Technical Characteristics
  - Quantum efficiency
  - Pixel size
  - Filter Factors
  - Fill Factor
  - Noise
  - Dark current
  - Full well capacity
  - Gain
  - Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio
  - Bit depth
- Physical size of the Sensor
- Field of View and Crop Factor
- Pixels and Megapixels
- Number of Pixels in Popular DSLR Cameras
- Spatial Resolution
- Dynamic Range
- Camera Noise
- ISO and sensitivity
- Quantum Efficiency
- Red Sensitivity and Long-wavelength Filters
- Bit Depth and Tonal Resolution
- Bit Depth and Color
- File sizes
  - The Basic Calculation
  - Bits, Bytes, Words
  - Color In 3 Channels
  - 8 Bits, 12 Bits, 16 Bits
  - Computers Count to a Million Differently
  - uncompressed File Sizes Are Different than Compressed File Sizes
  - Different Compression Ratios produce Different JPEG File Sizes
  - Cameras Offer Different Selectable In-Camera Resolutions
- Raw vs JPEG
- JPEG Quality Settings
- In-Camera Adjustments
  - White Balance
  - Color Adjustments
  - Contrast
  - Tonal curve adjustment
  - Saturation
  - Sharpening
- DSLR Camera Features
  - Live View
  - Remote Live View
  - Single-Wire Remote Control
  - Noise Reduction
  - Amp Glow
  - Dust reduction
  - Miscellaneous Features
    - Framing Rates
    - Buffer Size
    - Number of Autofocus Points
    - LCD Size
    - sRAW
    - Faster In-Camera Processors
    - Extended Dynamic Range for Highlights
    - Interchangeable focusing screens
    - Memory Card Type
    - Spot metering
  - High-Definition Video
Canon vs Nikon
- DSLR Development
- Today's Cameras
- Canon EOS DSLR Cameras (Date Announced)
- Nikon DSLR Cameras (Date Announced)
- Camera Comparison Chart
- Considerations for Long-Exposure Deep-Sky Astrophotography
  - Canon
  - Nikon
Stock vs Modified Cameras
- Long-Wavelength Filter Removal vs Replacement
- Recommended Filters for Modified Cameras
  - UV-IR
  - Clear Glass
- In-Camera Filters
The Canon EOS 20Da and 60Da
- Red Light Hydrogen-Alpha Sensitivity
- Live-View Focus
- Other Improvements for Astrophotography
- Daytime Photography
- Remote Control and Automation
Recommended Cameras
- How Much Do You Want to Spend?
- Astrophotography of Red Hydrogen-Emission Nebulae
- Summary

Chapter 2 - Equipment for Digital Astrophotography

Tripod
- Mini tripods
- Full-size tripods
- Ball Heads
Camera Lenses
- Zoom Lenses
- Lens Speed
- Canon EF-S and Nikon DX Lenses
- High-End Lenses
- High-End Lenses vs Telescopes
- Canon Lenses for Astrophotography
- Older Canon Lenses
- Nikon Lenses for Astrophotography
- Other Manufacturers
- Suggested Starter Lens Sets for Astrophotography
  - Normal
  - Wide Angle
  - Telephoto
Telescope Mounts
- Types of Mounts
  - Equatorial
    - Barn-door
    - Fork on wedge
    - German-Equatorial
    - Poncet
  - Non-Equatorial
    - Altazimuth
    - Ball and Socket
- Long-Exposure Astrophotography
- Importance of the Quality of the Mount
- Starter Mounts for Astrophotography
- Mount Requirements
- Real Bad Cheap German Equatorial Mounts
- An Inexpensive Do-It-Yourself Alternative: The Barn-Door Mount
- Inexpensive German Equatorial Mounts
- Starter Mounts
- Good German Equatorial Mounts
- Recommended German Equatorial Mounts
  - Small Lightweight Mounts
  - Medium Sized Portable Mounts
  - Large Heavy Duty Mounts
- Sturdy Tripod or Pier
Telescopes
- Picking a Telescope
  - Experience Level
  - Budget
  - Area of Interest
  - Observe or Photograph
  - Portability
- Telescope Attributes
  - Aperture
  - Focal Length
  - Focal Ratio
- Optical System Types
  - Refractive Optics
  - Reflective Optics
    - Newtonian
    - Ritchey-Chretien
    - Classical Cassegrain
  - Catadioptrics
    - Schmidt-Cassegrain
    - Maksutovs
    - Dall-Kirkham
  - Hybrid Designs
    - Schmidt-Newtonians
    - Maksutov - Newtonians
    - Maksutov - Cassegrains
    - Hyperbolic Astrographs
    - Cassegrain - Newtonians
  - Tips on Buying a Telescope
- Telescopes for Astrophotography
  - 60mm to 85mm Aperture
  - 90mm to 110mm Aperture
  - 125mm to 140mm Aperture
- Other Telescope Designs for Astrophotography
- Recommended Telescopes
  - Beginners
  - Intermediate
  - Advanced
- Eyepieces for Visual Observing
  - Wide Angle
  - Medium Power
  - High Power
- Recommended Eyepieces for Astrophotography
  - Wide Angle
  - Guiding Eyepiece
- Optical Accessories
  - Finder
  - Barlow
  - Telecompressor
  - Field Flattener
  - Coma Corrector
  - Minus-Violet Filter
- Other Equipment
  - Tube Rings
  - Dovetail Plates
- Imaging Setups
  - Direct Objective / Prime Focus
  - Afocal
  - Positive Projection (Eyepiece Projection)
  - Negative Projection (Barlow or Teleconverter)
Accessories
- Camera Adapters
  - T-Rings
  - Adapters
- Remote Release Switch
- Remote Timer Release
- DSLR Camera Batteries / External Power
  - In-Camera Batteries
  - AC Adapters
  - 12 Volt Adapters
  - External Batteries
- Telescope Power Supply
- Computer Power Supply
- Extra Memory cards
- Focusing Aids
- Right Angle Finders
- Other Hardware Focusing Aids
- Live-View Focusing
- Computer Assisted Focusing
- Hardware for Live-View or Software-Assisted Focusing
  - Mirror Right-Angle Viewer
  - External Video Monitor
  - Output to a Computer Monitor
  - Video Cables
  - Output to a Computer
- Computer Control
- Computer Equipment
- Hardware Cables for Long Exposures
- Guiding
  - Off-axis guider (OAG)
  - Guidescope
  - Guidescope Rings
  - Autoguider
    - Standalone Autoguiders
    - CCD Cameras
    - Inexpensive CCD Cameras
- Unguided Astrophotography
- Camera Mounts
- Dew caps, Anti-Dewers
- Crayford Focuser
- Motorized Focuser
- Polar Alignment Scope
- Filters
  - Minus-Violet
  - Ultra Violet / Infrared (UV/IR)
  - Light Pollution
  - Hydrogen-Alpha
  - Narrowband
  - Artistic Effects (Fog, Star)
- Recommended Telescope Accessories
Software
- DSLR Camera Control
- Software-Assisted Focusing
- Image Acquisition Automation
- Image Calibration, Aligning and Stacking
- Image Correction and Enhancement
- Autoguiding
- Photo Utilities
- Photoshop Filters and Actions
- Tutorials on Image Processing of Astrophotos
- Planetarium Programs and Atlases
- Astronomical Software For the PC
- Astronomical Software For the Mac
- Recommended - Budget Software
- Recommended - Retail Software
- Images Plus
Image Processing Hardware
- Computer
  - Desktop
  - Laptop
- LCD Monitor
- Monitor Calibration Hardware
- RAM
- Compact Flash Card Reader
- CD or DVD Writer
- Printer
Suggested Packages
- Budget Equipment
  - Camera
  - Lenses
  - Mount
  - Telescope
- Intermediate Equipment
  - Camera
  - Lenses
  - Mount
  - Telescope
- High-End Equipment
  - Camera
  - Lenses
  - Mount
  - Telescope
- Accessories
  - Easiest / Budget
  - Intermediate
  - Advanced
Chapter 3 - How Digital Cameras Work
- Photons to Electrons to Digits
  - Spatial Sampling
  - Tonal Sampling
  - Dynamic Range and Bit Depth
  - Computers and Numbers
  - Linear vs Non-Linear Data
- Color from Black and White Sensors
  - Tri-Color
  - Single-Shot Color
  - The Bayer Array
  - Bayer Array Resolution
- Signals and Noise
  - Signal
  - Noise
  - Detecting the Signal in the Noise
  - Visual Examples of Noise in Digital Cameras
- Sources of Signal
  - Object Signal
  - Sky Signal
  - Thermal Signal (Dark Current)
  - Bias (Offset) Signal
  - Cosmic Rays
  - Amp Glow
  - Miscellaneous Electronics Signals
- Signal Modifiers
  - Pixel Sensitivity Variations
  - Vignetting
  - Uneven Illumination
  - Dust
- Sources of Noise
  - Photon Noise
  - Thermal (Dark) Current Noise
  - Random Noise
  - Readout Noise
  - Quantization Noise
  - Processing Noise
- Dealing With Signals and Noise
  - Signals
  - Signal Modifiers
  - Noise
  - Improving the Object Signal by Adding Many Exposures Together
  - Thermal current signal removed by subtracting a master dark frame
  - Sky Background Signal Subtracted Out, Gradients Filtered
  - Dealing with Noise
  - Dealing with Unwanted Signals with Calibration Frames
    - Dark Frames
    - Bias Frames
    - Flat-Field Frames
  - In-Camera Dark Frame Subtraction
  - Controlling Sources of Heat
  - Noise Reduction Software
  - In-Camera Processing
Chapter 4 - Taking Pictures
- Beginner Astrophotography
  - The Moon
    - Suggested Exposures
    - Notes on Photographing the Moon
  - The Sun
    - Safe Solar Filters
    - Shooting the Sun
    - Solar Color Balance
  - Scenics
  - Star Trails
    - Tricks of the Trail
    - Camera
    - Batteries
    - Remote Release
    - Tripod
    - Lens
    - Aperture, Exposure and ISO
    - Exposure suggestions
    - In-Camera Noise Reduction
    - Focus
    - Miscellaneous Stuff
      - Tape Down the Focus
      - Lock the Mirror Up
      - Hat Trick
      - Watch Out for Dew
      - Dress Warm
      - Insect Repellant
      - Observe
  - Constellations
    - Method
    - Notes
  - Milky Way
- Intermediate Astrophotography
  - Afocal Photography
    - Method
    - Vignetting
  - Wide-Angle Piggy-Back Photography
    - Barn-Door Mounts
  - Telephoto Piggy-Back Photography
  - Prime-focus shots
  - Telecompressor / Tele-extender
  - Eyepiece Projection
- Advanced Astrophotography
  - Long-Exposure Deep-Sky Imaging
    - Planning the Imaging Session
      - What to Shoot - Pick Your Subject
      - How to Shoot It - Framing and Focal Length
      - Research a Guidestar
      - When to Shoot
      - Where to Shoot - Observing Sites
      - What Else to Shoot - Support Frames
      - Miscellaneous Notes
      - Battery Charging
      - Summary
    - Equipment Setup
      - Scope Setup
      - Polar Alignment
      - Periodic Error Training
      - Backlash Settings
      - Anti-Dewers
      - Power Requirements
        
        Car Batteries
        Deep-Cycle Marine Batteries
        In-Camera Batteries
        Separate Batteries
        Notes
        AC Power
        Portable Generators
      - Hook up the Camera to a Computer
      - Computers in the Cold
      - Summary
    - Camera Settings
      - Program Mode
      - Autofocus
      - White Balance
      - Drive
      - ISO
      - Metering
      - Exposure Compensation
      - Shutter Speed
      - Self Timer
      - Mirror Lock-Up
      - Quality settings
        
        Raw
        JPEG
        Raw and JPEG Concurrently
        Raw Compression
        Nikon Raw Format
        Native Optical Resolution
        White Balance
        Sharpening
        Saturation
        Color Space
        Built-in Flash
        Red-Eye Reduction
        Long-Exposure Noise Reduction
      - Recommended Camera Settings
    - Polar Alignment
      - Rough Polar Alignment
      - Polar Alignment Scopes
      - Star Movement in a Tracking Telescope
      - The Drift Method
        
        Level the Mount
        Directions in the Eyepiece
        Adjust the Azimuth of the Polar Axis
        Adjust the Altitude of the Polar Axis
      - A Shortcut to Remembering
      - Northern vs Southern Hemispheres
      - Polar Alignment Can Never Be Perfect
    - Focusing
      - Diopters
      - Focusing Methods
        
        By Eye
        Right Angle Finders
        Aerial Method
        Hartman Mask, Scheiner Disk
        Diffraction Spikes
        Bahtinov Mask
        Star Trail Test
        Hybrid Method
        Autofocus
        FotoSharp
        Parfocalized Eyepiece
        Knife Edge
        Stellar Technologies Critical Visual Focuser (CVF)
        Digital Zoom
        Software
        Real Time Live-View Video Display
        
        Output to a monitor
        Output to a computer
      - Focusing Camera Lenses
      - Recommendations
    - Target Acquisition and Framing
      - Sensor Size, Focal Length and Field of View
      - When to Focus
      - Locate the Object
        
        Computerized Go To
        Setting Circles
        Star Hop
        Guidescope / Finder
        Main Scope
      - Frame the Object
      - Special Considerations
      - Test Exposures
      - Recommendations
    - Guiding vs Tracking
      - Deciding Whether to Guide or Just Track
      - Unguided Astrophotography
      - Deciding Whether to Piggyback Guide or Off-Axis Guide
      - Guiding and Tracking Tolerances
      - Star Sizes at the Focal Plane
        
        Example 1 - Long focal length
        Example 2 - Short focal length
      - Periodic Error and Tracking Tolerance
      - Manual Guiding
      - Autoguiding
      - Piggyback Guidescope vs Off-Axis Guider
      - Using a Separate Guiding Scope
      - Using an Off-Axis Guider
      - Practical Guiding Considerations
        
        Selecting a Guidestar
        Focusing a Guidestar
        Lock Downs
        Guidedog and Web Cams
      - How Long Can You Shoot with an Altazimuth Mounting?
      - Recommendations
    - Image and Support Frames
      - Light Frames
      - Support Frames
        
        Dark Frames
        Bias Frames
        Flat-Field Frames
      - Levels of Effort and Complexity
        
        Single Light Frames
        Multiple Light Frames
        Multiple Light Frames and Dark Frames
        Multiple Light Frames and Complete Support Frames
      - Light Frames
      - Dark Frames
      - Dark Noise
      - Amp Glow
      - Scaling Dark Frames
      - Creating a Master Dark Frame Library
      - In-Camera Dark Frame Subtraction
      - Flat-Field Frames
      - Bias Frames
      - Order In Which To Shoot Support Frames
    - ISO and Exposure
      - Observing Site Darkness
      - ISO in DSLR Cameras
      - ISO, Gain, and Dynamic Range
      - Optimum ISO
      - ISO and Ambient Temperature
      - Recommended ISOs
      - Exposure Length
      - Equivalent Exposures
      - Exposures and Histograms
      - Recommended Exposures for Deep-Sky Objects
      - A Word about M42, The Orion Nebula
      - Number of Sub-Exposures
      - Recommended Number of Exposures
      - Time Between Exposures
      - Controlling Sources of Heat
        
        Turn off the LCD screen
        Use a fast compact flash card or write directly to a computer
        Use an external power source
        Shoot in colder ambient conditions
        Cool the camera
        
        Cold Packs
        Fan
        
        Pause between frames
      - Recommended Methods of Controlling In-Camera Heat
      - Binning
      - Summary
    - Data Acquisition
      - White Balance
      - White Balancing Astronomical Images
      - The Color of the Sky
      - Recommended White Balance Setting
      - Advanced Techniques
        
        Dithering
        Drizzling
        Scalable Dark Frames
        LRGB
        HaRGB
      - Controlling and Automating the Imaging Session
        
        Hardware - The Canon TC-80N3 timer
        For Bulb Exposures longer than 30 seconds:
        Software
    - File Formats, Downloading, Archiving
      - File Formats
        
        JPEG
        TIFF
        Raw
        FITS
      - Data Storage in the Field
      - Downloading
      - EXIF Header Info
      - Archiving
      - Recommendations
    - Cheat Sheets
      - Planning
      - Equipment Setup
      - Camera Settings
      - Drift Polar Aligning
      - Focusing
      - Target Acquisition and Framing
      - Image and Support Frames
        
        Light Frames
        Dark Frames
        Flat Field and Flat-Field Support Frames
        Bias Frames
      - Guiding and Tracking
      - ISO and Exposure
      - Recommended Exposures for Deep-Sky Objects
      - Recommended Number of Exposures
      - Recommended Methods of Controlling In-Camera Heat
      - Using the TC-80N3 to Automate Image Capture for Bulb Exposures Longer than 30 Seconds
      - File Formats, Downloading, Archiving
  - Filtered Shots
    - RGB Tri-Color
    - DSLR Long-Wavelength, Low-Pass Filters
    - Daylight Balancing Filters
    - Light Pollution Filters
    - Narrowband Filters
    - Representative Color Imaging
    - Hydrogen-Alpha (H-alpha) Filters
    - LRGB Images
    - Infrared
    - White-Light Solar Filters
    - Hydrogen-Alpha Filters for Solar Work
    - Minus Violet
    - Artistic Effects
    - Miscellaneous Notes
      - Auroras and Filters
      - Light Pollution Filters and Wide-Angle Lenses
      - Low cost alternatives to expensive light pollution filters
    - Resources for Filters
  - High-Resolution Planetary Imaging
Chapter 5 - Image Processing
- Color Management
  - Device Profiling
  - Camera Color Space
  - Profiling Your Monitor
  - Grayscale Step Wedge
  - Setting the Color Space in Photoshop
  - Assigning vs Converting
- Basic Image Processing for JPEG Images
  - Evaluate the Image
    - Examine the Histogram
    - Critical Evaluation
  - Subtract the Darks
    - Thermal Signal
    - Subtract a Dark Frame from Each Individual Light Frame
    - In-Camera Noise Reduction vs Dark Frame Subtraction
    - The Problem of Temperature Matching in a DSLR Camera
  - Average the Lights
  - Flatten the Field
  - Set the White Point
    - Photoshop's Info Palette
    - Photoshop's Eyedropper Tool and Color Sample Tool
    - Set the White Point in Each Individual Color Channel
  - Neutralize the Sky Background
  - Set the Black Point
  - Adjust the Brightness of the Midtones
    - Curves Mid-Tone Adjustment
    - Levels Mid-Tone Adjustment
  - Adjust the Color
  - Reduce Noise, Touch Up
  - Archive the Image
  - Resample, Sharpen, Save as JPEG
    - In-Camera Sharpening
    - A Two-Pass Approach
    - Resampling
    - Photoshop's Unsharp Mask Filter
    - Save as a JPEG
- Advanced Processing for Raw Images
  - 1. Calibrate
    - Basic and Advanced Calibration
    - Frames Needed for Basic Calibration
    - Frames Needed for Advanced Calibration
    - Calibration before De-Bayerization
    - Linear vs Non-Linear Files
    - Frame Components
  - 1.1 Manual Calibration
    - Basic Calibration
      - Convert All Raw Files to 16-bit Linear CFA Files
      - Create a Master Dark Frame
      - Calibrate the Individual Light Frames
      - Save the Calibrated Light Frames
    - Advanced Calibration
      - Convert All Raw Files to 16-bit Linear CFA Files
      - Create a Master Bias Frame
      - Create a Master Flat-field Frame
      - Create a Scalable Master Thermal Frame
      - Calibrate the Individual Light Frames
      - De-Bayerize the Light Frames (Interpolate into Color Images)
      - Save the Calibrated Light Frames
  - 1.2 Automatic Calibration (Automatic Image Set Processing in Images Plus
  - 2. Stack
    - Evaluate and review
    - Align and Register
    - Stack (combine by Add, Average, or Median)
    - Normalize / Weight (if necessary)
      - Normalizing - Stacking Images Shot at Different ISOs
      - Weighting - Stacking Images Shot at Different Exposures
      - Stacking Images Shot in Combinations of Different ISOs and Exposures
  - 3. Adjust
    - White Balance
      - Human Visual Perception and Color Balance
      - Digital Cameras and Color Balance
      - Color Balance in Astronomical Images
      - White Balancing a Modified DSLR Camera
        
        Setting the White Balance on a G2V Star
        Custom White Balance in the Camera
        Manually Adjust the White Points in Photoshop
      - But the Image is Still Dark!
      - Accurate Daytime Color and Modified DSLR Cameras
      - The Color of the Sky Background
      - Apply the White Balance Corrections to the Astronomical Image
    - Non-Linear Stretch
      - Applying a Non-Linear Curve to the Stacked Master Light Frame in Photoshop
    - Neutralize the Sky Background
      - The Color Sample Tool
      - The Graypoint Eyedropper
    - Flatten the Field
      - GradientXTerminator
      - Programs for Removing Vignetting and Gradients
    - Set the Black Point
      - Adjust the Black Point in Levels
      - The Sky is Not Black!
    - Fix Cosmetic Imperfections
      - Remove Cosmic Ray Hits, Renegade Hot Pixels, Other Defects
  - 4. Enhance
    - Mask Highlights, Enhance Shadows
      - Photoshop's Shadow/Highlight Command
    - Enhance the Color
      - Photoshop's Saturation Command
      - Mask the Shadows
      - Photoshop's Selective Color Command
    - Reduce Noise
      - Noise Ninja
  - 5. Sharpen
    - Photoshop's Unsharp Mask filter
  - 6. Archive the Image
- Special Techniques
Chapter 6 - Archiving and Output
- Metadata
  - Image Information
- Archiving Your Digital Data
  - A Two-Pronged Backup Approach
  - My Backup Procedure
  - The Question of Longevity
  - The Problem of Technology
  - The Problem of Transfer
  - Additional Image Files to Backup
  - File Formats
    - Raw
    - TIFF
    - PSD
    - FITS
    - JPEG
    - GIF
  - File Extensions
  - Recommended Archiving
  - Recommended File Formats
  - The Ultimate Long Term Storage Medium
- Crop, Resize and Resample for Output
  - Cropping
  - Resizing and Resampling
  - Resizing, Resampling and Cropping at the Same Time
  - Recommended Resolution
- Sharpen Based on Output
  - Sharpening Full-Resolution DLSR Camera Originals
  - In-Camera Sharpening
  - A Two Pass Approach
- Color Management and Printing
  - Photoshop vs Web Browser Display
- Output
  - To a Computer Monitor, the Web or Email
  - To a Print
    - Desktop Printer
    - One-Hour Lab
    - High End Printers
- Resolution and File Sizes
Appendix
- References and Resources
- Canon 20D and 20Da Setup
- Equipment Tests
- Formulas
- Tables
  - F/Stops
  - Calculating the difference between F/Stops
  - Recommended Exposures for a Total Solar Eclipse shooting at ISO 100
- Equipment Lists
  - Observing Equipment
  - Astrophotography Equipment
  - Camping Equipment
  - Observing Scope
- Practice Files
  - M33 - Canon CR2 Raw files: Lights, Darks, Flats, Bias
  - Macbeth - Color Chart in Canon CR2 raw file format
  - Orion - Single original JPEG light frame
  - Steps - An 18-step grayscale step chart for monitor calibration
- Video Tutorials on Image Processing
  - Photoshop Setup (3:08)
  - Introduction to Basic Processing for JPEG Images (0:37)
    - Evaluate the Image (8:46)
    - Subtract the Darks (5:18)
    - Average the Lights (4:56)
    - Flatten the Field (4:30)
    - Set the White Point (5:26)
    - Neutralize the Sky Background (1:29)
    - Set the Black Point (2:31)
    - Adjust the Brightness of the Midtones (0:49)
    - Adjust the Color (1:44)
    - Reduce Noise, Fix Cosmetic Imperfections (4:39)
    - Save the Image(1:28)
    - Resize, Sharpen, Save as JPEG for Web Output (3:22)
  - Introduction to Advanced Processing for Raw Images (1:19)
    1. Calibration (5:25)
    2. Stack
      - Evaluate and review (0:52)
      - Align and Register (4:20)
      - Stack (combine by Add, Average, or Median) (4:41)
      - Normalize (if necessary) (2:20)
    3. Adjust
      - White Balance (9:49)
      - Non-Linear Stretch (2:04)
      - Neutralize the Sky Background (1:15)
      - Flatten the Field (6:33)
      - Set the Black Point (1:16)
      - Fix Cosmetic Imperfections (2:04)
    4. Enhance
      - Mask Highlights, Enhance Shadows (2:13)
      - Enhance the Color (6:11)
      - Reduce Noise 2:50)
    5. Sharpen (1:57)
    6. Archive the Image (1:19)
  - Special Techniques
    - Screen Mask Invert (2:01)
    - High-Pass Filtering (3:46)
Glossary

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